Table 3 Overview of included studies

Barlow et al. [33]

Caregiver mental health (depression)

Health visiting intervention

RCT

United Kingdom

N = 131 women; Intervention n = 68, M age not provided; Control n = 63, M age not provided

Black et al. (1994) [34]

Caregiver mental health (substance use)

SPICE

RCT

USA

N = 60 women; Intervention n = 31, M age = 26.4 (SD 0.9); Control n = 29, M age = 27.9 (SD 0.7)

Butz et al. [35]

Caregiver mental health (substance use)

Home visiting intervention

RCT

USA

N = 117 women; Intervention n = 59, M age = 28.0 (SD 4.6); Control n = 58, M age = 28.9 (SD 4.5)

Chartier et al. [27]

Child maltreatment

Families First home visiting

Retrospective cohort study

Canada

N = 9746 women; Intervention n = 4562, M age at first birth = 21.09 years (SD not provided); Control n = 5184, M age at first birth = 20.75 years (SD not provided)

Duggan et al. [36]

Child maltreatment

Hawaii Healthy Start

Program

RCT

USA

N = 643 women; Intervention n = 373, M age = 23.7 years (SD 5.8); Control n = 270, M age = 23.3 years (SD 5.8)

Fraser et al. [37]

Child maltreatment

Home visiting intervention

RCT

Australia

N = 181 women; Intervention n = 90 women, M age = 25.72 years (SD 5.61); Control n = 91 women, M age = 26.67 years (SD 6.08)

Giallo et al. [31]

Child maltreatment

HoPES

Mixed methods

Australia

N = 30 families; mother n = 29, M age = 28.9 years (SD 7.1); father n = 11, M age = 34.09 years (SD 10.8); children n = 31, M age = 14.4 months (SD 9.7), 46.7% female

Goldfeld et al. [38]

Women experiencing adversity (including mental health difficulties)

right@home

RCT

Australia

N = 722 women; Intervention n = 306 women, M age = 27.6 years (SD 6.1); Control n = 359 women, M age = 27.4 years (SD 6.2)

Goldfeld et al. [39]

Women experiencing adversity (including mental health difficulties)

right@home

RCT

Australia

N = 426 women; Intervention n = 225 women, M age = 27.9 years (SD 6.0); Control n = 201 women, M age = 28.7 years (SD 6.4)

Julian et al. [28]

Child maltreatment

Michigan Model of IMH-HV

Quasi-experimental

USA

N = 76 mother–child dyads, mother M age = 27.2 years (SD 7.0); child M age = 9.9 months (SD 8.5)

Julian et al. (2023) [40]

Women experiencing adversity (including mental health difficulties)

Michigan Model of IMH-HV

RCT

USA

N = 66 mother–child dyads; mother M age = 31.93 (SD 5.57); child M age = 11.22 months (SD 7.11)

Kemp et al. [41]

Women experiencing adversity (including mental health difficulties and domestic violence)

Sustained structured nurse home visiting program

RCT

Australia

N = 208 women; Intervention n = 111 women, M age = 27.6 years (SD 6.7); Control n = 97 women, M age = 27.7 years (SD 5.9)

Lee et al. [42]

Child maltreatment

Healthy Families New York

RCT

USA

N = 1173 women; Intervention n = 579, M age = 22.37 years (SD 5.56); Control n = 594 women, mother M age = 22.53 years (SD 5.43)

Lowell et al. [43]

Child emotional/behavioural problems and/or parent psychosocial risk

Child FIRST

RCT

USA

N = 157; Intervention n = 78 mothers, mother M age = 27.7 years (SD = 7.0), child M = 19.0 months, (SD = 9.2), 42.3% male; Control n = 79, mother M = 26.9 years, (SD = 6.9), child M = 18.0, (SD = 8.8), 45.6% male

O’Malley et al. [29]

Caregiver mental health (substance use)

TIES

Quasi-experimental

USA

N = 220 women, M age not provided

O'Donnell (2023) [32]

Families with multiple risk factors (e.g., family violence, substance use, mental health concerns, Child Protection involvement)

Cradle to Kinder

Mixed methods

Australia

Quantitative component: N = 57 families, metropolitan families n = 24 (29% = Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander), mother M age = 19.33 years (SD = 2.31), father involvement in program = 33%; rural families n = 33 (32% = Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander), mother M = 18.44 (SD = 0.68, father involvement in program = 48%. Qualitative component: N = 14, 11 months, 3 fathers, M age = 22.5 (SD = 3.04), 29% = Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander

Oxford et al. [44]

Caregiver mental health

Promoting First Relationships

RCT

USA

N = 252 women; Intervention n = 127, [low distress: n = 85, mother M age = 28.81 years (SD 5.67), child's M age = 1.85 months (SD 0.46); high distress n = 42, mother M age = 28.64 years (SD 6.25), child's M age = 1.83 months (SD 0.45); Control n = 125, [low distress: maternal M age = 27.94 years (SD 5.27), child M age = 1.82 months (SD 0.45); high distress: maternal M age = 26.26 years (SD 6.22), child M age = 1.92 months (SD 0.53)]

Ribaudo et al. [45]

At risk mothers (including mental health difficulties and early childhood adversity)

Michigan Model of IMH-HV

RCT

USA

N = 58, M age = 32.65 years (SD 5.23), Child M age = 11.95 months (SD 6.19)

Rosenblum et al. [46]

Caregivers with adverse childhood experiences

Michigan Model of IMH-HV

RCT

USA

N = 62 families; Intervention n = 32, mother M age = 32.38 years (SD 5.72), child M age = 23.59 months (SD 6.57)

Starn [47]

At risk women (including substance use)

Home visiting intervention

RCT

USA

N = 30 women, M age not available

van Doesum et al. [48]

Caregiver mental health (depression)

Home visiting intervention

RCT

Netherlands

N = 85 women; Intervention n = 36 women, M age = 30.4 years (SD 4.1); Control n = 35 women, M age = 29.9 years (SD 3.6)

van Grieken et al. [30]

Caregiver mental health (stress)

The Supportive Parenting intervention

Quasi-experimental

Netherlands

N = 301 families; Intervention n = 124, mother M age = 31.0 years (SD 7.0), father M age = 34.0 years (SD 7.3), child M age = 7.6 months (SD 3.4), 47% child as girls; control n = 177, mother M age = 30.7 (SD 5.3), father M age = 32.6 years (SD 6.0), child M age = 5.1 months (SD 2.8)